MadrasAgric.J.,2024; ; https://doi.org/10.29321/MAJ.10.500001

111|7-9|

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Received: 28Aug 2024

Revised: 15Sep 2024

Accepted: 24 Sep 2024

*Corresponding author's e-mail: rajasenthil748@gmail.com

Shifting Pest Paradigms in Indian Crops: A Comprehensive

Review of Emerging Threats

Senthilraja N ^1*, D. B. Sisodiya ¹ , Priyadharshini V ² and Srikala P ³

1Department of Agricultural Entomology, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat 388 110

2Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu 608 002

3Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tamil Nadu 641003

ABSTRACT

Sustainable crop production directly relates to the insect repercussions in

future climates. In recent times, it has been essential to look over the changes

in the pest scenario as the categories of pests may shift. Such deviations in

the pest status are due to multiple factors viz., increased temperature, rise

in Co2 levels, etc. This is well-witnessed in a wide array of crops. Changes in

these factors favour the pest species depending on their ecology. Monitoring

the climate and pest population is vital for understanding the effect of climate

change on insect pests. Therefore, the forecasting and prediction models must

be adjusted considering the evolving circumstances. This review examines these

changes in key crops, including pearl millet, maize, okra, cotton, tomato, chilli,

cassava, mango and coconut. Significant pest shifts include the replacement

of stem borer and shoot fly by fall armyworm in maize and the rise of sucking

pests in Bt cotton. New invasive pests such as Tuta absoluta in tomato and

Thrips parvispinus in chilly underscore the shifting pest landscape. The review

highlights the importance of monitoring pest populations and advocates for

integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, the development of resistant

varieties and conservation of natural enemies to mitigate economic losses.

Key Words: Changing scenario; Insect pests; Cotton; Maize; Okra; Pearl Millet.

INTRODUCTION

Since the onset of the green revolution in India,

there has been a constant increase in the number

of insect pests and non-insect pests like mites

and nematodes and their pest status has shifted

concurrently. Climate change, genotype change,

loss of biodiversity, excessive fertilizer application,

unwise use of pesticides, lack of natural enemies and

prevailing favourable microclimatic weather conditions

have all contributed to changes in the pest scenario

(Rathee and Dalal, 2018).

In nature, the status of pests keeps changing year

after year. The major pest will become minor and vice

versa. Sometimes alien/invasive pests may cause

havoc and establish them as major pests. Several

new pest populations or already known minor pests

were increasing significantly over time, which caused

economic damage. Such deviations in the pest status

were noticed in various crops. Hence, it is critical to

keep an eye on the appearance and abundance of

pests because their habitat might shift quickly.

For example, Stem borer and shoot fly were replaced

by fall armyworm and earhead worm in pearl millet.

Chilo partellus is replaced by S. frugiperda in maize

and before the introduction of Bt crops, the bollworms

are the major pests and after their introduction, the

sucking pests become a major pest. In Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, the

green mirid bug, Creontiades biseratense (Distant), has

become a major pest in cotton (Udikeri et al., 2012).

In Northern India, mites belonging to Eriophyiidae and

Tetranychidae families have become a major pest in

bean, jalapeno, cotton, cucurbits, okra, apple, ber,

citrus and mango (Singh and Raghuraman, 2011). In

Northeastern India, the invasive pest so-called tomato

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pinworm, Tuta absoluta become a major pest in

tomato (Azad Thakur et al., 2012). In chilli, the invasive

thrips, Thrips parvispinus also referred to as tobacco

thrips or Western thrips become a pest of concern with

quarantine importance. In cassava, the invasives viz.,

the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell,

papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams &

Granara de Willink, Madeira mealybug Phenacoccus

madeirensis Green, cassava mealybugs Phenacoccus

manihoti Matile-Ferrero and Phenacoccus herreni

Cox & Williams are regarded as the potential pests. In

mango, pests including mealybugs, thrips, mites, leaf

webbers, stem borers and scales which were once

thought to be minor or secondary pests have recently

become major pests (Jayanthi et al., 2014). In coconut,

the eriophyid mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer become

an emerging threat resulting in an economic loss for

the coconut industry. Thus, it is important to examine

current changes in the pest situation.

Agricultural research is receiving more attention

as the desire to reduce yield loss from biotic and

abiotic factors grows. With this in mind, the review

discusses the changing pest situation in the Indian

ecosystems of pearl millet, maize, okra, cotton,

tomato, chilli, cassava, mango and coconut along with

the percentage increase in pest infestation over the

past few years and the likelihood that these pests will

become major or key pests shortly, causing significant

economic losses for both agriculture and horticulture.

Changing pest status in various crops

1. Pearl millet

In India, pearl millet is cultivated on more than 8

million hectares, ranking third after rice and wheat.

Besides being a staple food for humans, it is also a

valuable source of fodder for livestock (Yadav et al.,

2016). In this crop, the incidence of insect pests and

diseases is not up to a great extent but sometimes

the infestation by white grubs or grasshoppers

causes substantial loss in the crop. The chemical

management measures are costlier and unpopular;

therefore, farmers do not adopt them (Kumar et al.,

2010). Till 2018, the stem borer, Chilo partellus and

the shoot fly Atherigona spp greatly affected the quality

and productivity of pearl millet. The occurrence of fall

armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda on pearl millet and

sorghum was noticed in October 2018. The damage

was up to the extent of 30 per cent in pearl millet

and 70 per cent in sorghum. The pest is gradually

spreading to other millets also (Venkateswarlu et al.,

2018). Similarly, a heavy incidence of earhead worm,

Helicoverpa armigera was noticed on the pearl millet

during flowering as well as in the milking stage in the

Anand district of Gujarat. Due to the infestation of H.

armigera in pearl millet, the flowering and ear heading

stages are heavily damaged. The pearl millet showed

a reduction in grain formation and yield of the crop as

compared to earlier years as per the farmer’s view.

During the summer season, the heavy infestation of

H. armigera in the pearl millet in almost all the areas

of Borsad taluka of Anand district showed habitat and

behavioural change of H. armigera (Dabhi, 2018).

Thus, earlier stem borer and shoot fly were the major

pests but now fall armyworm and earhead worm are

the emerging insect pests of pearl millet.

2. Maize

Maize has wider adaptability under varied agro-

climatic conditions and is known as the queen of

cereals. After rice and wheat, maize is the third most

important food crop in India. In 2010-11, it was grown

on 8.7 million hectares (80% of the total area), mainly

during the Kharif season (Parihar et al., 2011). A total

of twenty-four insect pests viz., sorghum earhead worm

Stenachroia elongella, shoot fly Atherigona soccata,

cutworm Agrotis spp, oriental armyworm Mythimna

sp, Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua, Maize

Webworm Marasmia trapezalis, green stink bug

Nezara virudula, shoot bug Peregrinus maidis, leaf-

footed bugs Cletus sp, aphids Rhopalosiphum maidis,

white leaf hopper Cofana unimaculata, Green leaf

hopper Nephotettix spp, leaf beetles Monolepta

signata, weevil Sitophilus zeamais, Ash weevil

Myllocerus sp, grasshopper Atractomorpha crenulata

and Hieroglyphus banian were recorded in maize.

Among these, stem borer (C. partellus), cob borer (S.

elongella) and shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) were

found to be major pests and crop damage by these

major pests were 8.5 and 21.75 per cent by shoot fly,

15.67 and 13.45 per cent by stem borer and 11.95

and 6.5 per cent by cob borer during 2010 and 2011,

respectively (Patra et al., 2013). Before mid-2018, the

stem borer C. partellus and S. inferens and shoot fly

Atherigona spp. were regular pests in maize-growing

areas posing challenges in maize production (Kumar

et al., 2018). The fall armyworm, S. frugiperda is a

well-known pestiferous insect with strong dispersion

capacity, a broad host range and high fecundity. In

2018, the fall armyworm on maize was reported in

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various districts of Karnataka, India (Sharanabasappa

et al., 2018). The recent invasion of S. frugiperda has

transformed the pest situation and is now a major

pest of maize in India (Suby et al., 2020). Thus now C.

partellus is replaced by S. frugiperda and this invasive

pest became a major pest of maize.

3. Okra

India is the largest producer of okra. Although

okra holds larger areas under cultivation in India,

productivity remains low. Insect pests are one of

the major direct causes of yield reduction and low

productivity. Nearly 72 insect pests attack okra

(Mandal et al., 2006). Among these insect pests,

shoot and fruit borers, Earias vittella, aphids Aphis

gossypii Glover, leafhopper Amrasca devastans and

Bemisia tabaci are quite serious. Shoot and fruit borer,

E. vitella is the most damaging pest of okra as young

larva bores into tender shoots in the early vegetative

growth of plants (Dhaker et al., 2017). Apart from

these pests Mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis, Fruit

borer, H. armigera and Stem fly, Ophiomyia phaseoli

extended their host range towards okra (Sathiah et al.,

2021). Due to the injudicious amount of pesticides

used against phytophagous mites, they quickly

developed resistance and the two-spotted spider

mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, became the major

phytophagous mite in okra (Sathiah et al., 2021).

4. Cotton

In India, cotton contributes to the livelihoods of 95

million people. India is also the only country where all

four cultivated varieties are grown. In the past, Asiatic

cotton cultivars (Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium

herbaceum) were only cultivated in India. The

development of high-yielding upland cotton varieties

(Gossypium hirsutum) and hybrid cotton varieties has

led to the replacement of traditionally low-yielding and

low-quality Asiatic cotton varieties (Blaise and Kranthi,

2019). Till 2000 the American bollworm Helicoverpa

armigera, pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella,

spotted

bollworm

Earias

vittella,

leaf-eating

caterpillar Spodoptera litura and the whitefly Bemisia

tabaci are major pests of cotton. The first genetically

modified cotton crop with cry genes from the bacteria

Bacillus thuringiensis was officially launched in India

in 2002. Bollgard II with Cry1AC and Cry2AB (double-

gene technology) was released in mid-2006. These

genes encode proteins that defend the cotton plant

from the bollworms. After this introduction of Bt

cotton, the quantities of pesticides required decreased

significantly. But soon after, the sucking insects

became a major problem. After 2006 Mealybugs

started destroying cotton and reduced yields by up

to 40-50 per cent in affected fields (Compendium of

Cotton Mealybugs, 2011). To combat the problem

farmers started prophylactic spraying of pesticides

which leads to the resurgence and resistance of the

sucking pests. Similarly in 2015, a whitefly outbreak

caused havoc and destroyed the Bt cotton crop in

Punjab and Haryana (Kranthi, 2015). On the other

hand, the resistance of pink bollworm P. gossypiella to

Boll guard 1 with the Cry1AC gene was reported in

Gujarat, India (Karihaloo and Kumar, 2009). In India,

pink bollworms became resistant to Bt cotton after

7 years due to the use of illegal Bt cotton seeds with

low doses of Bt protein and non-compliance with

the refuge strategy (Huang et al., 2011). The field

resistance in pink bollworms to Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab is

also reported in India (Naik et al., 2020). Thus, before

the introduction of Bt crops, the bollworms are the

major pests and after their introduction, the sucking

pests become a major pest and due to the resistance

development pink bollworm is still holding its position

as a major pest.

5. Tomato

Tomatoes are one of the most important vegetable

crops, grown worldwide. This crop is affected by a wide

range of pests and diseases resulting in a significant

yield loss in terms of both quantity and quality. Fruit

borers, whiteflies, thrips, mealy bugs and serpentine

leaf miners are the major pests that severely reduce

farmers’ productivity. Thrips and fruit borers were

recorded as the primary pests in the past. Pinworm

is becoming a bigger issue nowadays. The South

American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick),

has recently been reinstated as Phthorimaea absoluta

by Chang and Metz (2021) a new invasive pest

resulting in yield loss ranging from 30 per cent to 100

per cent due to inappropriate IPM techniques and the

indiscriminate use of synthetic insecticides. Tomato

pinworm infestations have been more frequent

recently. There have been reports of T. absoluta from

various regions of India all year long. However, the

quantity varies depending on the location (Sridhar et

al., 2015; Sharma and Omkar 2017, Nitin et al., 2017).

A significant yield loss may potentially surpass 100

per cent if the pest is not adequately managed (IRAC,

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2009). In India, it was first documented in Karnataka

by Sridhar et al. (2014) on tomatoes. T. absoluta will be

prevalent all around the year in India due to changes

in the climatic circumstances. Hence, depending

only on synthetic chemical management techniques

is ineffectual. Integrated pest management is the

thorough approach to eliminating this pest.

6. Chilli

Chilli is an important cash crop. In India, it is

widely cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, etc. Insects are the

primary cause of crop loss. They started to damage

the plants in its early stages of development. Fruit

borers, aphids, mites and thrips are the major insect

pests inflicting serious damage. Scirtothrips dorsalis

is the most prolific sucking pest in chilli. According

to Bauer and Sheih (2000), whitefly (Bemisia tabaci

Gennadius) was found to be a persistent pest in chilli.

Losses inflicted by the insect pests ranged from 50 to

90 per cent (Nelson and Natrajan, 1994) and sucking

pests ranged from 30 to 50 per cent (Varadharajan,

1994). Changes in pesticide use, climate change and

changes in agricultural production patterns favour the

emergence of invasive flower thrips, Thrips parvispinus

(Karny) in chilli causing 50 to 80 per cent loss and

becoming a major pest issue. In areas of Andhra

Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka that grow chillies,

there have been reports of infestations of this invasive

pest that inflict major damage during the Rabi season.

It was first reported in Bengaluru, India by Tyagi et al.

(2015) on Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae). Subsequent

reports on Brugmansia sp. (Solanaceae) and Dahlia

rosea Cav. (Asteraceae) were recorded (Rachana et

al., 2018; Roselin et al., 2021). T. parvispinus, become

a prominent pest in a wide range of agricultural and

horticultural crops (Rachana and Varatharajan 2017).

7. Cassava

Cassava is a starchy crop widely cultivated in

Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, etc. Numerous

pests such as whiteflies, cassava scale and variegated

grasshoppers damage roots and leaves, degrade

planting material quality and reduce market values.

The cassava whitefly, Bemisia tabaci was earlier

regarded as the primary pest which acts as a vector

in mosaic disease. In 2020, a new invasive pest was

discovered: the cassava mealybug or Phenacoccus

manihoti. The environmental factors viz., low humidity,

high fecundity, drought-like circumstances and a short

life cycle, are contributing to the current outbreak of

CMB, an invasive pest of cassava that has become

substantial (ICAR-NBAIR, 2020). P. manihoti is an

Indian pest that was first identified by Joshi et al.

(2020) in the Thrissur district of Kerala. Since then,

it has spread to the districts of Salem and Namakkal

in Tamil Nadu (Sampathkumar et al., 2021). The

infestation results in 90 per cent damage. The

conventional biological control involves the release

of the hymenopteran parasite wasp Anagyrus lopezi.

It is best to deploy parasitoids in several locations for

effective management.

8. Mango

The mango tree is indigenous to India. It is one of the

world’s most important fruit crops. Insect infestations

are a major barrier preventing mango cultivars from

producing maximum productivity. Approximately 400

different types of insect pests are known to infest

mangoes globally (Tandon and Verghese 1985; Pena

et al., 1998). A list of mango pests found globally was

created by De Laroussilhe (1980). Climate change has

resulted in the emergence of new pests. Pests including

mealybugs, thrips, mites, leaf webber, stem borer and

others that were formerly considered to be minor or

secondary have become serious problems recently

(Jayanthi et al., 2014). The risk posed by exotic pests is

growing in unison with both global trade expansion and

climate change. Recently, in Karnataka (India), a soft

scale known as Fistulococcus pokfulamensis Hodgson

& Martin was discovered for the first time (Joshi et al.,

2022). Previously, Fistulococcus pokfulamensis was

known to infest gymnosperms in Hong Kong. In India,

it has been documented to infest mango, Vaccinium

corymbosum and Syzigium cumini. Joshi et al. (2022)

issued a warning over the spread of the mango scale

across India.

9. Coconut

A major crop in tropical and subtropical areas is

coconut, also known as Kalpa Viruksha. The insect pests

such as red palm weevils, black-headed caterpillars,

rhinoceros beetles, coconut mites, etc. cause serious

damage and substantial losses to coconut growers. In

2016, scientists from ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru reported

that the extremely polyphagous invasive rugose

spiralling whitefly (RSW), Aleurodicus rugioperculatus

Martin, was found on coconut in Pollachi, Tamil Nadu.

Then, the insect swiftly expanded to every district in

South India that grows coconuts. The RSW is highly

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polyphagous, with over 118 hosts from 43 distinct

plant families, including many commercially important

crops in the US (Francis et al., 2016). The RSW was

more prevalent on the sides of national highways than

in interior areas (DPPQS Survey) due to dispersion by

humans, their activities and automobiles. According to

an examination of meteorological data obtained from

ICAR-CPCRI, Regional Station, Kayamkulam, a change

in weather pattern that is evident in the deficient

monsoon can be partly blamed for the abrupt increase

in RSW. Due to their extreme sensitivity to the wet

season, the recent monsoon deficit (>35% in Kerala)

and heavy rains are the primary causes of the flare-up.

The latter resulted in a drop in relative humidity of up

to 7 per cent from the previous year. A temperature

increase of more than 2 degrees throughout the

summer is another risk factor for the growth of the

insect population (ICAR-CPCRI, 2017).

Some strategies to manage emerging insect

pests given by rathee and dalal (2018) are given

below

•

Pests’ geographical distribution must be

carefully tracked

•

Identification, conservation and augmentation

of natural enemies of insect pests

•

Studying the biology and ecology of recognised

insect pests and their natural antagonists in

response to changing climate

•

Development of cultivars resistant/tolerant to

insect pests

•

Judicious use of insecticides

•

Developing suitable IPM programmes

•

Phytosanitary laws that forbid or restrict the

entry of dangerous insect pests

CONCLUSION

The evolving pest landscape in Indian agriculture

necessitates continuous monitoring and adaptive

management strategies. The replacement of traditional

pests by invasive species in crops like maize, cotton

and tomato highlights the impact of environmental

and agricultural practices. Understanding these shifts

is crucial for developing effective IPM measures.

Regular screening is essential to detect changes early

and manage them efficiently, thereby sustaining crop

production. Effective pest management requires a

multifaceted approach, including the use of resistant

crop varieties, judicious pesticide application and

integrated

pest

management

(IPM)

programs.

Conservation of natural enemies and adherence to

phytosanitary regulations are also vital. Addressing

these challenges is key to safeguarding crop yields,

ensuring sustainable agricultural practices and

mitigating the economic losses caused by emerging

pests. As a researcher, it is our responsibility to identify

the pests in the crop ecosystem to work out the

existing IPM strategies based on various parameters

(crop stage, pest abundance, pest status, etc.) or as

per the convenience of the farmers.

Funding and Acknowledgment

No funding was received to assist with the

preparation of this manuscript

Ethics statement

No specific permits were required for the described

field studies because no human or animal subjects

were involved in this review.

Originality and plagiarism

Authors ensure that we have written and submitted

only entirely original review article.

Data availability

Not applicable

Consent for publication

All the authors agreed to publish the content

Conflict of interest

There were no conflicts of interest in the publication

of this content

Author contributions

Idea conceptualisation-SN, Writing original draft -

SN, Writing- reviewing &editing -SN, DBS, PV and SP

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